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Everyone,
from time to time, has need of a succinct definition or explanation
of
terms that we throw around in professional and casual conversation, but
when pressed, find we are sometimes stumped. Regard this, then, as
a community
service. We have attempted to contrive a definition useful to the individual
not steeped in learning theory but which captures enough of the nuances
that the expert might cite it. The scholar may find our
omission of many contributors and subsets of major learning theories
greatly irritating. That does not dismay, as we have attempted here
to state briefly
the core positions and assumptions in a way that can be understood by
the average educator and instructional designer. Taken as a whole,
the
glossary serves as a cognitive map of the domain at the juncture of e-Learning
and communities of practice.
The content here is under an attribution only license. The
only requirement that an attribution license imposes is that subsequent
disseminators give
credit to the source. This is an important, but slight burden. And because
the license is perpetual, the attribution only license is quite close
to a public domain dedication.
apprenticeship
models
This learning model begins with deliberate instruction by someone
who acts as a model or highly-knowledgeable coach;
it then proceeds to shape cognitive or physical behaviors
in participants by increasing
the complexity of the tasks; participants increasingly take responsibility
for their own learning. Two essentials: (1) selecting appropriate real-world
tasks and situations, and (2) continuous feedback by the coach-model
. (see also cognitive
apprenticeship)
asynchronous learning
Communications among students and instructors which may be originated
at any time and/or at irregular intervals. E-mail and bulletin boards
have
been
the most
common means, but streaming video presentations are increasingly popular.
Chat is synchronous, e-mail is asynchronous.
behavioral
models
Behaviorism is one of the best-known and most generative constructs in
modern learning theory. Its proponents argue that learning is manifested
by a change
in behavior which is determined by elements in the environment, the most
important of which is reinforcement. Reinforcement is any means of increasing
the likelihood that the behavior will be repeated. Watson, Tolman, Hull
and Skinner are names associated with this model. Several important
educational
practices can be traced to the model, including the systematic design
of instruction, behavioral objectives, programmed instruction, computer-based
training, and competency-based education.
blended learning
Erroneously described as a learning model or even an instructional strategy,
the term instead signifies that there is more than one location for the
instruction, which
is usually a combination of live classroom
and web-based instruction. The benefits include the
cost savings of web-based presentations and the personal contact with
instructors
and peers in the classroom.
blogs
A web log (blog) is a web application containing brief,
chronologically arranged items of information, opinion or musings. A
blog can take the form of a diary, journal, a what's new page, or links
to other
web
sites,
and may constitute one of the biggest time-wasters since Solitaire. Some
blogs aggregate news
from other sites, mixed with commentary and opinion, but many
take the form of an online journal, often with
photos, poems,
and links.
Some blogs have been instrumental in building and maintaining communities
of practice, which alone justifies serious attention. (see, for
example, autounfocus)
(see also wiki)
brain-based
learning
Excited by recent research in neurobiology, there is much speculation
that a new model of learning will emerge that is based on linkages to
specific sections and operations of the brain. In the opinion of one
of the leading experts, however, "we do not know enough about brain
development and neural function to link that understanding directly,
in any meaningful,
defensible way to instruction and educational practice." [J. T.
Bruer, 1997]
cognitive apprenticeship
This model assumes the more-or-less continuous presence of an expert
who works alongside trainees and/or sets up situations that will
cause trainees
to begin to
work on
problems
even
before fully
understanding
them. A key aspect of an apprenticeship approach
involves breaking the problem into parts so trainees are challenged
to master as much of a task as they are prepared to handle. In addition,
instructors are encouraged to provide trainees with varying kinds of
practice situations before moving on to more challenging tasks, allowing
an understanding
that surpasses the use of formulas. The tasks and problems are chosen
to illustrate the power of certain techniques or methods, to give trainees
practice in applying these methods in diverse settings, and to increase
the complexity of tasks slowly, so that component skills and models can
be integrated. Drawing trainees into a culture of expert practice in cognitive
domains involves the expectation that they will eventually come
to "think like experts."
cognitive
models
Perception, insight and meaning are central to cognitive theories of
learning, whose proponents argue that, in contrast to behaviorist models,
learning
cannot be understood simply by reference to external events and behaviors.
Bruner is the name most closely associated with cognitive models, but
Gestalt theorists including Köhler and Lewin made significant contributions.
Bruner says there are three almost simultaneous processes: acquisition
of new information, manipulation of the new information to make it fit
new tasks, and evaluation to see if the manipulation is adequate to the
task. Because these are internal mental processes which cannot be observed
directly, the cognitive models stand in sharp contrast to behavioral
models. collaboration
technologies
These software applications
include
eRooms, Groove, and a myriad of other online services beginning
with something as simple as a Yahoo group. They provide a webspace
that offers a number of features for communicating and
sharing
files, calendars,
and databases. Most
wired seminars utilize webspaces that are run on some collaboration
software or service.
community
of practice
A group of people socially (i.e., informally) organized and
bound together by a shared expertise or ways of doing things, or by interest
in a joint
enterprise. Some practices
are tied to specific organizations (like the claims processors in the
insurance firm described in Wenger's book, Communities of Practice,
or the employment law specialists in a multi-state law firm) or by,
for example, a passion
for making fine black-and-white photographic prints on a inkjet printer.
One distinguishing characteristic of a community of practice
is
the amount of communication and collaboration that occurs, much of
which may be social or ancillary to the focus of the practice, but
results
in
stronger bonding and a sense of community. Learning communities—a
cohort of students working through a curriculum together (as in a
nursing
program)—usually create strong bonding and shared expertise, which
often results in much higher completion/graduation rates than the
average
of all students in that institution.
constructivist learning
Adherents of this model say that people construct their own understanding and
knowledge
of
the
world through experiencing things and reflecting on those experiences. When
we encounter
something new, we have to reconcile it with our previous ideas and experience,
maybe changing what we believe, or maybe discarding the new information as
irrelevant. In any case, we are active creators of our own knowledge. To do
this, we must
ask questions, explore, and assess what we know. In the classroom, the constructivist
view of learning can point towards a number of different teaching practices.
In the most general sense, it usually means encouraging students to use active
techniques (experiments, real-world problem solving) to create more knowledge
and then to reflect on and talk about what they are doing and how their understanding
is changing. Jerome Bruner is the name most commonly associated with this learning
model.
contingency
branching
One of the primary means of individualizing a computer-based tutorial
is by contingency branching, in which the path a learner takes through
the program is determined by responses made to questions embedded in the
tutorial. The branching may be made on the basis of right or wrong answers
to a question, an option selected by the learner, or based on the learner's
experience, job category, level, or any other category the instructional
designer chooses to query. A tutorial with no contingency branching is
simply an electronic page-turner.
e-Learning
Internet or networked-based learning practices. (also eLearning and E-learning)
The term does not imply any particular learning model, but rather an
anywhere/anytime delivery system, which might be a CBT
tutorial, webcast,
or videoconference, for example. The attraction, in addition to the
anywhere/anytime availability, is that e-Learning seems to offer lower
cost and wider
distribution, which is true, but the tradeoff is, too often, little
or no learning or enhanced
competencies. But the promise of a widely available interactive environment,
one that can assist people in visualizing difficult-to-understand concepts
and provide access to a vast array of information is an attractive one,
and we believe e-Learning will continue to expand its market share of
corporate and higher education.
electronic
page-turners
A derisive term for poorly-conceived computer-based "tutorials." They
usually lack any contingency branching or interactivity, and consist
entirely (or largely) of pages of text (including, perhaps, illustrations,
animations or video elements) which trainees go through serially
by clicking on a button.
EPSS (electronic performance support systems)
Training, coaching, mentoring, as well as documentation, cheat sheets,
and checklists offer ways of improving job performance; another way is
through embedded performance support
systems, which increasingly are computer-based and referred to as EPSS.
An EPSS is a computer system that provides integrated, on-demand access
to information, advice, learning experiences, and tools to enable a higher
level of job performance with a minimum of support from other people.
Context-sensitive online help, an infobase which might include case histories
on work assignments, narrative descriptions of how other users
have approached and solved similar problems, or a template embedded
in a
word
processing program which contains key questions to ask during an interview
with the client, are examples of EPSS. The concept and the standards
for
a good EPSS system were originally outlined by Gloria Gery, who brought
the approach beyond the simple job aid.
experiential
learning
Not all experiences lead to learning; some, in fact, mis-educate in that
they distort growth, narrow the field of further experiences and land
people in a groove or rut. Nevertheless, experiences which are the cause
for reflection and analysis, or which elicit attempts to connect them
with previous experiences, or stimulate one to see future implications
may result in experiential learning. John Dewey is the leading name
associated
with this learning model, which has generated several productive concepts,
including reflective practice and cognitive apprenticeships.
ILT
Instructor-led training, usually a seminar or workshop.
information transmission
A "sage-on-the-stage" is the pejorative term for what has
become the dominant instructional practice in higher education and much
of formal corporate training. It is more politely referred to as the
information transmission or the presentational model, although it is
not based on
any learning theory. In fact, there is excellent evidence that information
transmission is a consistent failure as a learning model, as measured
by retention or long-term changes in understanding and behavior. Among
the popular (with instructors) information transmission methods are
PowerPoint
slide shows and the talking heads disseminated by video cassette, streaming
audio, video and other forms of webcasting and videoconferencing. The
reasons for its popularity are: (1) instructors don't know any better,
as that's the way they were trained; (2) it is inexpensive; (3) it is
scalable.
instructional
design
A systems approach to designing a learning experience.
It considers the desired outcomes, environment, audience, corporate culture,
technology, instructional strategies, and measurement. Most e-Learning
offers scant
evidence
of any instructional design.
instructional
objectives
These are the measurable outcomes, observable and quantifiable, that
learners are supposed to exhibit following their training. In the development
process, after specifying the audience and the constraints under which
trainees will
undertake
the
learning
activities, the next step is to write the
instructional objectives. The
key word in the instructional objective is the verb (define, recall,
explain, calculate, construct, etc.). Some people think understand
and know are acceptable verbs; they are not, because neither
is observable. In the affective (as opposed to the cognitive) domain,
we will accept a few verbs that are measurable but not directly observable
(appreciate, value, accept). Without a rigorous statement of instructional
objectives that map directly to work-related competencies, there is zero
probability that the training will be successful.
interactive
One of the most misused term in the e-Learning lexicon (along
with individualized).
Some purveyors of training courses label their programs
"interactive" because the trainee has to click on a button
to see the next screen. There can be several levels of interactivity,
the
highest being where the content the learner sees is contingent on previous
responses or other trainee input. A truly interactive program is continuously
requesting a variety of learner responses and input, which are used to
adapt subsequent
content for that learner. A sophisticated simulation is interactive;
a
repeat-after-me computer-based tutorial is not. Online courses with little
interactivity are unlikely to result in much learning.
learning
models
active learning
authentic learning
apprenticeship (see
apprenticeship models and cognitive apprenticeship)
cognitive (see cognitive models)
collaborative learning
constructivist (see constructivist learning)
experiential (see experiential learning)
situated (see situated learning)
learning
styles
An individual's preferred and consistent set of behaviors or approaches
to learning, such as a preference for reading and reflection over listening
to a lecture. Gardner argues that learning styles may be mapped to different
kinds of intelligences, but most of the research in the field looks
at how well students
recall information presented in a variety of ways. There are a number
of assessment tools available that may help a student determine his/her
preferred learning style, but the research appears to have had little
impact on instructional design in higher education or corporate training.
performance support (see EPSS)
presentation
model (see information transmission)
reflective practice
Learner's experience is a major part of most adult learning theories,
and reflective practice —judgments based on experience and prior
knowledge—is an important component. That prior experience includes
tacit knowledge, which instructional designers/courseware developers
do not usually become aware of in their needs analysis; one consequence
is that trainees often conclude the instruction isn't "real" because
it doesn't reflect the subtleties they know exist on the job.
reinforcement
Anything that causes the learner's behavior to be repeated is regarded
as reinforcement. Knowledge of results is usually the most powerful
form
of reinforcement, provided it follows very closely in time to the
behavior. Praise and other forms of feedback are also generally effective,
but they, too, ought to follow the behavior closely, and they must
be contingent on some measure of successful performance or they are discounted
by the learner.
scalable
One of the buzzwords of the computer generation, to be scalable is to
be capable of handling significantly larger quantities (of throughput,
processing, connections, or students). Webcasting is scalable, a Socratic
dialogue is not.
situated learning
Most learning occurs outside the classroom as a function of the activity,
context and culture in which it occurs (is situated). A child's acquisition
of a spoken language is the oft-cited example. Situated learning
is usually unintentional rather than deliberate, and includes a great
deal of tacit knowledge. Lave, Wenger, Brown and Vygotsky are names
often associated
with the concept of situated learning. (see also apprenticeship learning)
synchronous learning (see asynchronous learning)
tacit
knowledge
Know-how, or an aspect of knowledge that we cannot easily articulate,
often because we don't know we know it until called upon to use it. The
opposite of explicit knowledge; the difference
between
being able to tell and able to do is usually ascribed to
tacit knowledge. Knowledge Management efforts are often an attempt to
ferret out the tacit knowledge that lies within employees and make it
retrievable in some sort of database; most attempts we've heard about
have not been
notably successful.
tacit
learning
The understanding one may gain in the act of doing or participating.
Implicit conventions, rules of thumb, underlying (but unstated) assumptions,
and a shared
world view are examples of tacit learning acquired by participation in
a community.
taxonomy
of educational objectives
One of the more enduring models of educational objectives was outlined
by Benjamin Bloom in the 1950s. He described it as a hierarchy of the
levels of thinking or cognitive activity. Bloom discerned six roughly
discrete levels of thinking and arranged them from the least complex,
KNOWLEDGE, through COMPREHENSION, APPLICATION, ANALYSIS, SYNTHESIS, to
the most complex, EVALUATION. Bloom describes the kinds of learning
activities appropriate
to attain competency at any level—a useful beginning for instructional
design.
technologies (used for e-Learning)
(see collaboration technologies, webcasting, videoconferencing)
videoconferencing
Videoconferencing
technologies offer live, multipoint interactive
audio and video using the public Internet or via Virtual Private
Networks. Near-broadcast quality full motion video, voice and data-collaboration
is common,
although
the
cost is still relatively high and the technology is based on
a fast processor, high bandwidth and good quality of service in the telecommunications
links. Conferences and training are the major applications, and leading vendors
include Polycom and Tandberg.
weblogs (see blogs)
webcasting
This technology takes a live video stream and uses
high speed processing power to compress and push the video and audio
through a media server, which in turn enables an unlimited number of
viewers to see and hear the session. Webcasting
is a non-interactive technology because of the inherent latency
of compressing, transporting and then decompressing the video stream.
The popularity of web casting lies in the potentially huge number of
concurrent conference viewers, such as a shareholder’s meeting
or sales presentation. Even with relatively low bandwidth, the web can
be used to "stream" live or recorded audio and video presentations,
but quality is usually the trade-off unless the client has high bandwidth
and a fast
processor.
Leading vendors and services include Centra, HorizonLive, and Webex.
wiki
A wiki is a tool for collaborative development of documents and web
pages, using basic formatting and linking conventions. A wiki page
can
be edited within a browser simply by clicking on the "edit this page" button
at the bottom of each page. We think wikis have exceptional
potential as a learning application tool.
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